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Informe: evaluación y alternativas al CIADI

Chile Mejor Sin TLC

 

  • La creciente expansión e internacionalización de la economía capitalista durante el siglo XX se realizó bajo el amparo del desarrollo de instituciones de carácter internacional que llevaban a cabo el papel del Estado. Un Estado cuya función debía ser la de proteger y garantizar los beneficios del gran capital, que expandía sus tentáculos por todos los rincones del planeta para poder continuar con su proceso de acumulación. La historia ha demostrado en infinidad de ocasiones cómo este proceso es incompatible con la soberanía de los distintos territorios tanto del Norte como del Sur, es decir, es incompatible con la democracia de los pueblos. Uno de los puntales que debía acompañar este proceso era la creación de un derecho internacional que pasara por encima de la ley soberana de cada país.

  • En el caso de América Latina este proceso ha tenido una profundidad especialmente intensa, en la que la intención ha sido evitar cualquier control democrático y soberano sobre las actividades de las compañías transnacionales, priorizando su obtención de renta y beneficios ante los derechos humanos y las posibilidades de políticas de desarrollo. Aquí, en nombre de la seguridad económica, los tratados bilaterales y multilaterales y los mecanismos de arbitraje internacional han jugado un papel esencial haciendo que muchos de los países de la región cedieran su soberanía jurisdiccional. Esta cesión democrática ha sufrido en la última década importantes giros en los que distintos países latinoamericanos han recuperado sustanciales cuotas de soberanía nacional priorizando el bienestar de sus pueblos y las políticas de desarrollo. Estos giros marcan el camino a seguir en la región cuyos resultados no serán satisfactorios si no se llevan a cabo de forma conjunta por un destacado número de países que quieran recuperar la soberanía nacional en materia de derecho.

  • Una de las instituciones que destaca en la constitución de este derecho internacional es el Centro Internacional de Arreglo de Diferencias Relativas a Inversiones (CIADI), una institución del Grupo del Banco Mundial dedicada a arbitrar diferencias relativas a inversiones internacionales entre Estados y empresas (incluyendo empresas multinacionales) de otros países que hayan invertido en el primero. También puede actuar en el caso de controversias entre Estados en virtud de tratados de inversión y tratados de libre comercio, al igual que como registro administrativo.

  • El CIADI fue establecido en el año 1966 por el Convenio sobre Arreglo de Diferencias Relativas a Inversiones entre Estados y Nacionales de Otros Estados (el Convenio del CIADI).

  • El Convenio del CIADI es un tratado multilateral formulado por los Directores Ejecutivos del Banco Mundial en aras de cumplir el objetivo del Banco de promover la inversión internacional. Es un tratado ratificado por 153 Estados Contratantes.

  • Este organismo prevé el arreglo de diferencias mediante Conciliación, Arbitraje o Comprobación de Hechos. Cada caso es considerado por una Comisión de Conciliación o un Tribunal de Arbitraje independiente, luego de ponderar las pruebas y los argumentos jurídicos presentados por  las partes. A cada caso se le asigna un equipo  que brinda asistencia especializada a lo largo del proceso.

  • El tribunal está compuesto por un árbitro que elige el Estado, otro que elige el inversor y un tercero que se elige de común acuerdo entre ambas partes y presidirá el tribunal.

  • Una de sus finalidades es dotar a la comunidad internacional con una herramienta capaz de promover y brindar seguridad jurídica a los capitales de inversión internacional. Realmente, lo que pretende es brindar seguridad jurídica a favor de los inversores.

  • El Arbitraje y la Conciliación al amparo del Convenio son totalmente voluntarios, se requiere el consentimiento de ambas partes para recurrir a ellos. Una vez prestado dicho consentimiento no puede retirarse unilateralmente y se convierte en un compromiso vinculante.

  • No obstante, en muchas ocasiones este consentimiento viene dado por cláusulas incorporadas en los contratos Estado-inversor o en los Tratados Bilaterales de protección de Inversiones (TBI) entre Estados. Esto hace que un país que abandone el CIADI como Arbitraje pueda seguir vinculado a este organismo mientras duren estos acuerdos.

Principales críticas a considerar

  • El CIADI ha sido fuertemente criticado por diversas organizaciones que consideran que su posición tiende a beneficiar a las empresas.

  • Uno de los principales argumentos para sostener esto es la base jurídica que el propio CIADI toma para la resolución de las demandas que son presentadas ante él:

  • Los Tratados Bilaterales de protección de Inversiones (TBIs o BITs en inglés).

  • El Convenio de Washington de 1966, constitutivo de este organismo.

  • Deja de lado toda normativa existente sea ésta interna o nacional del Estado receptor de la inversión incluyendo las propias Constituciones Políticas de los Estados o incluso las normativas existentes en el Derecho Internacional Público que incluye por ejemplo, los Derechos Humanos.

  • Ello no permite sopesar las argumentaciones de ambas partes en torno a las afectaciones de las inversiones y las actividades de las empresas demandantes sobre los derechos de los habitantes de las poblaciones de los Estados demandados y que se encuentran afectados por la actividad de estas empresas.

  • Esta situación hace que tanto los TBIs como los capítulos sobre inversiones de los tratados de libre comercio (TLCs)[1] formen una especie de “bloque jurídico” que se halla al margen de lo que es considerado hoy Derecho Internacional Público o Privado, para pasar a ser una especie de “nuevo derecho pro-empresarial” dedicado a dar garantías a las inversiones extranjeras. Todo esto sin un control de la legalidad que contrapese estos derechos con los de los habitantes afectados o el medio ambiente, lo cual da al CIADI y a los acuerdos internacionales aludidos una vigencia o preponderancia de dudosa legalidad y legitimidad.

  • Cabe recordar que a diferencia de los tribunales de justicia, en el CIADI no hay jueces, sino árbitros elegidos para cada caso y que forman un panel de arbitraje. Árbitros procedentes de los más importantes despachos de abogados especializados, situados mayoritariamente en las economías centrales. Algo que presenta flagrantes conflictos de intereses, ya que la misma persona a veces actúa como asesor de empresas multinacionales y otras como árbitro.

  • Otro de los argumentos usados por sus críticos radica en la capacidad procesal activa no recíproca entre el ente público (el Estado receptor de la inversión) y el ente privado (la empresa inversora). El marco jurídico habilita que solamente las demandas pueden ser planteadas desde la empresa contra el Estado y no viceversa.

  • El CIADI forma tribunales arbitrales únicos, y no hay una instancia superior a ese tribunal “ad hoc”. En consecuencia, las decisiones del CIADI son inapelables e irrevisables (salvo por el mismo organismo), volviéndose en obligatorias para los Estados, lo cual también despierta duras críticas.

  • Un ejemplo, entre muchos de este tipo de litigios, es el caso denunciado por la empresa sueca Vattenfall contra el Estado alemán sobre el cierre de centrales nucleares.

  • Los TBIs en su mayoría poseen cláusulas de ultractividad. Estas cláusulas hacen que, por más que un Estado desee salirse de estos acuerdos, éstos funcionen durante un período extra de 10, 15 y hasta 20 años más.

 Alternativas al CIADI

  • Con todo lo presentado aquí, queda claro que la eliminación de las obligaciones inaceptables que representa el CIADI es imprescindible para un país que quiera avanzar en el control soberano y democrático de las actividades empresariales multinacionales en aras del desarrollo socioeconómico y el respeto a los derechos humanos.

  • Varios son los países en la región, como Bolivia, Nicaragua, Ecuador o Venezuela, que han abandonado el CIADI, o los casos de México[2] y Brasil, que nunca han formado parte de él.

  • Brasil es un buen ejemplo de país que se ha mantenido por fuera del CIADI y los inversores extranjeros siguen invirtiendo en la economía brasilera. Sus intereses están protegidos por contratos negociados con el gobierno brasilero.

  • Brasil ha logrado resolver problemas con inversores extranjeros a través de medios diplomáticos, un enfoque que es inevitablemente menos costoso y lleva menos tiempo para todas las partes involucradas.

  • Otorgan recurso ante los tribunales nacionales a un procedimiento de arbitraje ad hoc conducido bajo las reglas del CNUDMI (Comisión de las Naciones Unidas para el Derecho Mercantil Internacional).

  • En términos de inversión de entrada, Brasil no ha sufrido alguna consecuencia negativa por no ratificar los Tratados Bilaterales de Inversión.[3]

  • Otro caso que muestra vías alternativas es el de Argentina. Su estrategia fundamental se ha basado en invocar una cláusula que figura en varios de los TBIs firmados. La cláusula tiene el nombre técnico de provisión sobre medidas de no exclusión[4] y limita y condiciona las obligaciones asumidas por un Estado en un tratado internacional en el caso de circunstancias extraordinarias (como por ejemplo, salvaguardia de la seguridad nacional, emergencia sanitaria,…). Bajo estas circunstancias no existe incumplimiento del tratado, sino que éste no resulta aplicable.

  • No obstante, la mayoría de paneles de arbitraje internacional (incluido el CIADI, por supuesto), aunque reconocen la validez de esta cláusula, no reconocen la capacidad de Argentina para decidir sobre en qué circunstancias se puede invocar o no reconocen la gravedad de la situación (crisis de 2001)[5].

  • Uno de los mecanismos alternativos que se puede encontrar en la Cámara Internacional de Comercio actualmente, son las DAB (Dispute Adjudication Board), las juntas de resolución de conflictos.

  • Generalmente se utiliza como instancia previa a un arbitraje más formal.

  • Es un proceso de adjudicación de litigios en el lugar donde se desarrolla la inversión, que normalmente incluye a tres personas independientes e imparciales seleccionadas por las partes contratantes.

  • El 5 de agosto del 2016 la DAB rechazó todas las demandas de las empresas GUPC (Grupo Unidos por el Canal) hacia el Estado de Panamá.

  • Existen además distintos organismos con arbitraje alternativos al CIADI como la Cámara Internacional de París, la Cámara de Comercio de Estocolmo, o la Comisión de las Naciones Unidas para el Derecho Mercantil Internacional (CNUDMI), entre otros. No obstante, son alternativas no satisfactorias del todo pero sí tienen ventajas respecto al CIADI.

Sugerencias finales

  • Considerando todas las explicaciones previas, sería recomendable trabajar por una alternativa a medio-largo plazo que se centre en llevar las controversias a la jurisdicción nacional previa preparación y especialización de los jueces y tribunales creando las instituciones necesarias para garantizar la imparcialidad jurídica. Este proceso debería combinarse con la creación de un Tribunal de Inversión Regional para Latinoamérica, con Tribunales permanentes de jueces financiados por los Estados de la región. Es importante tener en cuenta que una estrategia alternativa de recuperación de soberanía nacional de este tipo no será exitosa si no se construye de forma conjunta en el marco de los intereses comunes de América Latina.

  • Esto podría llevarse a cabo en el marco de la recuperación de la Doctrina Calvo[6] y que dio lugar a la cláusula Calvo, que en los convenios donde figura establece que los posibles conflictos deben resolverse en los tribunales locales, quedando vedado el recurso al arbitraje internacional. Esta doctrina está consagrada y refirmada (1975) en la Carta de la Organización de los Estados Americanos de 1948, lo que contradice todo lo que ha sucedido después[7].

Notas

 

[1] Que muchas veces emulan los contenidos de TBIs e incluso nombran al CIADI como organismo al cual someterle las disputas que pudieran despertarse entre los Estados firmantes (tal era el caso del ALCA para las Américas, por ejemplo).

[2] En el caso de México, igual que Canadá, ha aceptado al CIADI como conciliador para el NAFTA.

[3] https://www.iisd.org/itn/2008/12/08/arbitrajes-de-inversin-en-brasil-si-…

[4] Una cláusula usualmente utilizada en los tratados internacionales, especialmente por EEUU.

[5] La gran cantidad de sentencias contradictorias que se suceden es una característica de los arbitrajes internacionales. Lo que demuestra la discrecionalidad de los laudos y la falta de objetividad jurídica, lo que genera una ambiente de incertidumbre.

[6] Surgida en el siglo XIX en Latinoamérica en el marco de las relaciones imperialistas con Europa. En los convenios donde figura establece que los posibles conflictos deben resolverse en los tribunales locales, quedando vedado el recurso al arbitraje internacional.

[7] De hecho, fue en los años 1960 se utilizó esta doctrina para rechazar el CIADI por parte de casi todos los países de América Latina. Incluso inspiró la Resolución de la Asamblea General de la ONU de 17-12-1973 que proclama la soberanía permanente de los estados sobre los recursos naturales, y un año más tarde la Carta de los Derechos y Deberes Económicos de los Estados.

 

Alfredo Serrano Mancilla (@alfreserramanci), Lucía Converti (@ConverL) y Francisco Navarro (@navarroulos)

 

Investigadores CELAG

 

Fuente: http://www.celag.org/informe-evaluacion-y-alternativas-al-ciadi/

 

 

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